tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-47076481118586845142024-03-06T07:04:53.029+00:00Blog do LBIM - www.uc.pt/fmuc/lbimBlog do LBIM: Notícias, informações e comunicações do Laboratório de Bioestatística e Informática Médica da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Coimbra.FChttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08015792654011374149noreply@blogger.comBlogger62125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-47129693086315463992020-03-31T18:09:00.001+01:002020-03-31T18:09:09.927+01:00Estatísticas da COVID-19 em Portugal e no MundoConsultar o blog https://covid-pt.blogspot.com/Bárbara Oliveiroshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15222395539680594185noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-22274309528078660832020-03-31T18:06:00.004+01:002020-03-31T18:06:46.076+01:00Role of temperature and humidity in the modulation of the doubling time of COVID-19 casesPreprint aprovado em 25(02/2020 no MED RXiv com doi provisório (<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: GillSansRegular, "Gill Sans MT", "Gill Sans", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14.7px;">https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.05.20031872</span>) a aguardar decisão da PLoS Medicine<br />
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<a href="https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.03.05.20031872v1">https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.03.05.20031872v1</a>Bárbara Oliveiroshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15222395539680594185noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-21174195096257719182020-03-31T18:04:00.004+01:002020-03-31T18:07:30.140+01:00Estimation of risk factors for COVID-19 mortality - preliminary resultsPreprint aprovado em 08/03/2020 no MED RXiv com doi provisório (<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: "gillsansregular" , "gill sans mt" , "gill sans" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.7px;">https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.02.24.20027268</span>) a aguardar decisão da BMJ Open<br />
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<a href="https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.02.24.20027268v1">https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.02.24.20027268v1</a>Bárbara Oliveiroshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15222395539680594185noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-32795973745730996562017-03-22T14:06:00.005+00:002017-03-22T14:06:37.227+00:00Curso "O que é uma boa questão de investigação?"Na sexta-feira, dia 31 de Março, terá
lugar o curso “O que é uma boa questão de investigação?”, de acesso
livre, organizado pelo Laboratório de Bioestatística e Informática
Médica (para mais informações:
<a href="https://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica/Cursos">https://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica/Cursos</a>).<br /><br />Este é um curso que poderá interessar:<br /><br />- a orientadores, a quem cabe ajudar os estudante a definir as suas questões de investigação<br />
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- a todos os Professores ou Investigadores</div>
- a estudantes, no âmbito das suas dissertações ou teses de Mestrado ou
Doutoramento - neste trabalho terão forçosamente de definir, de forma
clara, a questão de investigação a que procuram responder<br /><br />Neste
sentido, cremos ser útil auscultar a opinião da comunidade. Pedíamos
assim que dispendesse 4 minutos do seu tempo, se possível, a preencher o
seguinte questionário:<br /><br /><a href="https://goo.gl/forms/etu6gRrJ8xUF8H6u2">https://goo.gl/forms/etu6gRrJ8xUF8H6u2</a><br /><br />Os resultados do questionário serão analisados no curso supra referido.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-54993433823251190812016-10-14T15:53:00.000+01:002016-10-14T16:42:32.483+01:00Revisões Sistemáticas e Meta-Análises no CINEICC<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Hoje o dia de alguns membros do <a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica" target="_blank">LBIM</a> foi passado na companhia de membros do <a href="http://www.uc.pt/en/fpce/research/CINEICC" target="_blank">CINEICC</a> a discutir <a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica/Cursos/documentos_extra/rsmacineicc" target="_blank">Revisões Sistemáticas e Meta-Análises</a>. Seguem-se as fotos da praxe.<br />
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-62697441958720565072016-10-14T15:21:00.000+01:002016-10-14T15:21:29.040+01:00Big Data<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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A definição de "big data" não é muito clara. Segundo o quase-omnisciente Google, big data é uma expressão usada para designar "<span>extremely large data sets that may be analysed computationally to
reveal patterns, trends, and associations, especially relating to human
behaviour and interactions.</span>" Uma definição que costumamos usar no <a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica" target="_blank">LBIM</a> é que "big data" são bases de dados tão grandes que o Excel não as consegue abrir.</div>
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Em especial na Medicina, big data traz muitas vezes <i>big trouble</i>, como é descrito <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/why-big-data-analytics-does-work-healthcare-udai-kumar?articleId=7364410340076734265" target="_blank">neste artigo de opinião</a>. Muito do que causa problemas é comum a problemas onde a base de dados não é grande, como por exemplo:</div>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missing_data" target="_blank">missing data</a>: quando há variáveis diferentes com missing data, isso poderá diminuir drasticamente o n (tamanho da amostra) do estudo. Havendo três variáveis com missing data cada uma, qualquer teste estatístico que envolva as três variáveis só poderá ter em conta as observações para as quais se tenham observado as três variáveis. A existência de <i>missing data</i> pode transformar tantos dados "normais" quanto <i>big data</i> em <i>insufficient data</i>;</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garbage_in,_garbage_out" target="_blank"><i>garbage in, garbage out</i></a>: quando os dados não são de qualidade, os resultados de uma análise estatística não poderão ser bons. A inclusão de uma variável medida sem precisão suficiente estraga de forma irremediável qualquer modelo, mesmo quando se usa o melhor método nos melhores computadores;</li>
<li>falta de planeamento: por vezes há a oportunidade de registar dados muito promissores. Porém, a ideia de adquirir dados e depois tentar extrair deles informação interessante, sem um planeamento a priori, é geralmente um passo para o desastre. A ordem correcta do raciocínio deve ser:</li>
<ul>
<li>definição do que se quer obter de dados que é possível obter</li>
<li>definição das características dos dados que é necessário obter (por exemplo, qual terá de ser o sample size? Como deverão ser armazenados os dados para permitir a sua análise)</li>
<li>obtenção dos dados</li>
<li>análise</li>
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A possibilidade cada vez mais frequente de se obter <i>big data</i> (ou mesmo bases de dados que, não sendo <i>big data</i>, são "grandes" relativamente ao que é comum nalgumas áreas, tendo por exemplo n=300 ou n=400) é aliciante, mas é também terreno fértil para oportunidades falhadas. Colher dados por colher (e depois se vê...) raramente dará bons resultados. O planeamento prévio é essencial.</div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-71092956817653249312016-09-22T22:40:00.000+01:002016-09-22T22:40:07.697+01:00Balanço do curso "Investigação Replicável"<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Fazendo jus à (recente) tradição de publicar fotos dos nossos cursos, seguem-se algumas. De pouca qualidade, é certo, pelo que se pede indulgência: a sala estava escura para melhor se verem os slides e a câmara era do telemóvel. </div>
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Mais importante: tivemos a sorte de poder contar com o contributo precioso dos participantes, que muito agradecemos. Para um futuro (tanto quanto possível) próximo, ficou o compromisso de colocar a discussão do curso num documento.</div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-14588678987777432362016-09-22T13:52:00.002+01:002016-09-22T21:21:59.661+01:00Resultados do inquérito pré-curso "Investigação Replicável"<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Como prometido no último <a href="http://laboratoriobioestatistica.blogspot.pt/2016/09/replicabilidade-em-ciencia.html" target="_blank">post</a>, tornamos públicos o resultado do <a href="https://goo.gl/forms/7lDbhAsaBVsEnfbn1" target="_blank">questionário</a> sobre Investigação replicável. Os dados em bruto podem ser encontrados <a href="https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1HVTGKyA0W6Lad_k9cUvseQElLQg40CPAJiZe6Z_Iz94/pubhtml?gid=169445538&single=true" target="_blank">aqui</a>. </div>
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Analisados os dados no dia 20/09/2016, constatou-se ter havido à data 58 respondentes ao inquérito, dos quais 17 professores, 17 investigadores, 14 estudantes, 10 pessoas com “outra ocupação”. Um total de 51 dos respondentes indicaram ser da área das “Ciências Médicas ou Ciências da Vida”, 2 da área das ”Ciências Sociais” e 5 de outras áreas. Relativamente às idades, 6 indicaram ter menos de 25 anos, 19 ter idade entre 25 e 34 anos, 11 entre 35 e 44 anos, 15 entre 45 e 54 anos, 6 entre 55 e 64 anos e 1 respondente 65 anos ou mais.<br />
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De forma porventura pouco surpreendente, os resultados são qualitativamente parecidos aos que haviam sido desvendados num outro inquérito (mais completo e com muitos mais respondentes), da <a href="http://www.nature.com/news/1-500-scientists-lift-the-lid-on-reproducibility-1.19970" target="_blank">Nature</a>. Incluimos de seguida gráficos onde se pode observar as distribuições das respostas às principais perguntas do noso inquérito:</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
O nosso inquérito foi realizado para iniciar uma discussão sobre a replicabilidade em Ciência, com particular enfoque nas áreas Biomédica, sendo um instrumento informal de recolha de opiniões, sem fins científicos. Ainda assim, cremos que permite tirar algumas conclusões interessantes. Estas e o que tem sido publicado sobre replicabilidade serão objecto de discussão no curso de hoje, "<a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica/Cursos" target="_blank">Investigação Replicável</a>". Esperamos em breve ter a oportunidade de glosar as principais conclusões num documento que partilharemos aqui.</div>
</div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-59262102412538557712016-09-12T13:53:00.002+01:002016-09-21T14:06:16.170+01:00Replicabilidade em Ciência<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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O <a data-saferedirecturl="https://www.google.com/url?hl=en-GB&q=http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica&source=gmail&ust=1473764101577000&usg=AFQjCNFSV6GQRU-aLV2i_RDyXGxax8EkPA" href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica" target="_blank">Laboratório
de Bioestatística e Informática Médica</a> (LBIM) da Faculdade de Medicina da
Universidade de Coimbra irá organizar, no dia 22 de Setembro, o curso “<a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica/Cursos" target="_blank">Investigação Replicável</a>”, no qual se pretende discutir o que funciona, o que falha e como
melhorar para garantir replicabilidade dos estudos científicos. Será colocado
um particular enfoque no papel da Bioestatística. O curso é aberto a todos os
interessados, solicitando-se apenas, motivos logísticos, que seja efectuada uma
inscrição. Como prelúdio ao curso, pedimos ainda o preenchimento de um breve
<a href="https://goo.gl/forms/7lDbhAsaBVsEnfbn1" target="_blank">questionário</a>, cujos resultados darão mote à discussão e serão posteriormente
apresentados no blog do LBIM.<br />
<br />
<b>Nota</b>: Houve uma alteração da sala onde irá decorrer o curso, passando a ser o
Anfiteatro 1 da sub-Unidade I da Faculdade de Medicina (pólo III)</div>
</div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-21147580257297241152016-07-15T10:34:00.000+01:002016-07-15T18:30:30.847+01:00Ano lectivo 2015/2016 a chegar ao fim<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Com a realização hoje do último dos cursos LBIM do segundo semestre do presente ano lectivo, chega o tempo de fazer um pequeno balanço.</div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQa9F_im7gRHDYrXAuB_vF5fLHFKGjXYginzNGqMHKPj_TMkjbzvJ7I3HNXSTD1kcxsf3pXeA5q0lnki-me3Vilvk5GHMTDCOxCj51Z3TL3IiQ9N6zshP6x7ilCbcdXrOebAujb3MQUWZX/s1600/IMG_7724.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="480" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQa9F_im7gRHDYrXAuB_vF5fLHFKGjXYginzNGqMHKPj_TMkjbzvJ7I3HNXSTD1kcxsf3pXeA5q0lnki-me3Vilvk5GHMTDCOxCj51Z3TL3IiQ9N6zshP6x7ilCbcdXrOebAujb3MQUWZX/s640/IMG_7724.jpeg" width="640" /></a></div>
Fotografia tirada no curso ANOVA e GLM<br />
<br />
O ano de 2016 tem permitido a implementação de grandes mudanças no Laboratório de Bioestatística e Informática Médica (<a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica" target="_blank">LBIM</a>):<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li style="text-align: justify;">Começámos este ano a estruturar os cursos que oferecemos (abertos a toda a comunidade) numa estrutura coerente: os cursos LBIM2016. Até hoje já decorreram 10 desses cursos, estando ainda previstos 4 cursos entre Setembro e Dezembro de 2016: <a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica/Cursos" target="_blank">Investigação Replicável, Análise Factorial e Análise de Clusters, O problema das comparações múltiplas e Classificação Estatística</a>. Sendo certo que serão proximamente divulgados os cursos LBIM2017, ainda estamos em discussões internas sobre o seu formato. </li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Iniciámos este ano a leccionação de novas <a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica/Actividades_docentes" target="_blank">Unidades Curriculares</a>. Uma destas, "Métodos de Investigação I : Planeamento de Trabalhos Experimentais e de Dissertação", leccionada em ambos os semestres aos 4º e 5º anos do Mestrado Integrado em Medicina, permitiu fornecermos um apoio estruturado a alunos na fase em que estão a trabalhar nas suas dissertações de Mestrado. Para o LBIM, a inclusão desta Unidade Curricular opcional no plano do Mestrado Integrado em Medicina foi uma pequena revolução. De facto, há todos os anos muitos alunos da <a href="http://www.uc.pt/en/fmuc" target="_blank">FMUC</a> que pedem ajuda a membros do LBIM para a análise estatística dos dados das suas dissertações. No passado, essa ajuda era muitas vezes prestada de forma informal e quando possível, sem uma estrutura clara e em detrimento das demais actividades dos membros do <a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica" target="_blank">LBIM</a>, não sendo contabilizado na sua produção científica ou pedagógica. Neste momento, para além da possibilidade (quando faça sentido) que todos os alunos têm de serem orientados ou co-orientados por membros do LBIM, os alunos do Mestrado Integrado em Medicina podem inscrever-se na Unidade Curricular "Métodos de Investigação I : Planeamento de Trabalhos Experimentais e de Dissertação". Nesta pretende-se que os alunos adquiram todas as ferramentas para realizarem de forma autónoma toda a análise estatística dos seus dados - o acompanhamento é próprio, mas exige-se essa autonomia. </li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Temos procurado eliminar o trabalho informal realizado por elementos do <a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica" target="_blank">LBIM</a>. Procura-se assim libertar um bem escasso essencial - tempo! - bem como aumentar indicadores de produtividade como orientações ou <a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica/Publicacoes" target="_blank">artigos publicados</a>. </li>
</ul>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Naturalmente, todas as mudanças são ancoradas na continuidade da filosofia em que nos baseamos: procuramos ir para além da Estatística, defendendo as boas práticas que decorrem da correcta aplicação do método científico. Procuramos ainda ter a abertura que acreditamos dever caracterizar todos os grupos de investigação, sendo essa uma das razões pelas quais tentamos organizar um número grande de cursos e manter em funcionamento este blog. Temos como objectivo (reconhecidamente ainda pouco conseguido) a implementação de uma discussão activa sobre bioestatística e, de forma mais geral, como melhorar a investigação que é feita presentemente. O próximo curso que organizaremos, "<a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica/Cursos" target="_blank">Investigação Replicável</a>", propõe-se discutir isso mesmo: qual é o estado da Ciência e como fazer melhor Ciência? Adicionalmente, não faltam ideias sobre os passos a seguir pelo LBIM para atingir o objectivo de dinamizar uma discussão mais profícua que envolva toda a Faculdade de Medicina e demais comunidade: esperamos ter novidades em breve.<br />
<br />
Todas as sugestões, críticas ou comentários que nos possam deixar serão muito apreciadas. </div>
</div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-76309638147580897262016-07-14T18:43:00.003+01:002016-07-14T18:43:42.327+01:00Lying with statistics<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Qual a melhor medida descritiva? Média, mediana, mínimo, máximo, outra? Qualquer um pode ser <a href="https://mathwithbaddrawings.com/2016/07/13/why-not-to-trust-statistics/#more-4815" target="_blank">inadequado</a>. Como sempre, o bom senso é a única resposta.</div>
</div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-83587667808542722352016-06-22T16:06:00.000+01:002016-06-22T16:07:19.753+01:00Perguntas frequentes em bioestatística #15. E quando as regras da estatística não se parecem aplicar?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">A seguinte mensagem é a décima quinta comunicação da série <u>Perguntas
Frequentes em Bioestatística</u>, da autoria de membros do Laboratório de
Bioestatística e Informática Médica da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de
Coimbra. Pretende-se fomentar uma discussão sobre as melhores práticas
estatísticas na área da saúde.</span></div>
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<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Miguel Patrício, Francisco Caramelo</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">A Estatística é um mundo complexo de regras e excepções, com diferentes
estratégias para lidar com o mesmo problema e muitos avisos sobre o que é pouco
aconselhável fazer-se. É frequentemente difícil desbravar o caminho no meio dos
dados colhidos e conseguir extrair conclusões dos mesmos. Em simultâneo, é
comum a noção (errada) que torturando os dados se pode sempre descobrir algum
padrão ou extrair alguma informação apelativa. Esta forma de pensar é, mais do
que se gostaria de admitir, profícua no mundo da investigação - de facto, após
a recolha dos dados existe a ideia que é quase sempre possível efectuar
diferentes análises estatísticas, obter algum valor-p interessante do ponto de
vista da publicação (tipicamente, p<0.05) e construir uma narrativa. Inverte-se
assim a lógica do método científico, em que o ponto de partida é uma questão,
se recolhem dados para responder a esta e os mesmos são analisados para se
obter a resposta. Deste modo, a colocação <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">a
posteriori</i> de perguntas, após a recolha dos dados, constitui uma forma
errada de construir Ciência e é fonte de inúmeros erros. É aliás um dos
factores que contribui para erodir a credibilidade das publicações científicas<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="PT" style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a>. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Tem havido uma grande discussão sobre a credibilidade da ciência, das
revistas e do sistema de <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">peer-review</i>.
São sobejamente conhecidos exemplos de autores que conseguem publicar, em
revistas de reputação pouco sólida, artigos com conteúdo jocoso<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="PT" style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a>.
O problema de se publicar o impublicável afecta também melhores revistas, em
que os editores e revisores muitas vezes não estão avisados para erros básicos
como o que se referiu em cima, de colocação de uma pergunta <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">a posteriori<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="PT" style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[3]</span></b></span></span></span></a> </i>ou
para outros de carácter estatístico ou metodológico. De facto, com boa ou má
intenção, muitas publicações têm erros crassos que podem ser evitados tendo-se
em conta princípios básicos da Estatística (ou, com igual propriedade, do Método
Científico e do bom senso) como:</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">As perguntas têm de ser colocadas <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">a
priori</i>, antes da recolha dos dados. A análise estatística deve ser feita
tendo as perguntas previamente colocadas em mente<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="PT" style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a>;</span></li>
</ul>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">A inferência estatística (por outras palavras, o cálculo de valores-p<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="PT" style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[5]</span></span></span></span></a>)
deve ser feita apenas quando fizer sentido. Deve-se ser parcimonioso, pois o
recurso a muitos testes estatísticos obriga a correcções de comparações
múltiplas<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="PT" style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[6]</span></span></span></span></a>;</span></li>
</ul>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">O tamanho da amostra deve ser suficientemente grande se se pretende fazer
inferência. A razão é simples: para se poder inferir algo é preciso ter
confiança nessa inferência - é preciso ser convincente. Dificilmente se
consegue ser convincente com tamanhos amostrais como n=3. Há fórmulas para
calcular o tamanho amostral<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="PT" style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[7]</span></span></span></span></a>;</span></li>
</ul>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">O tamanho do efeito deve ser objecto de discussão independentemente do
significado estatístico<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="PT" style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[8]</span></span></span></span></a>.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Há muitas outras regras, ditadas pela Estatística, pelo Método Científico
ou pelo bom senso, que se poderiam acrescentar à lista em cima. Como sempre
acontece quando há muitos cuidados a ter em conta nalguma tarefa, torna-se
difícil, mesmo para a pessoa mais bem intencionada, tomar outra posição que não
seja ficar bloqueado ou avançar de forma temerária. Em paralelo, para quem
ensina Estatística<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="PT" style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[9]</span></span></span></span></a>,
colocam-se também desafios complicados - reduzir a complexidade de uma
disciplina a algumas horas implica fazer escolhas como apresentar sempre
exemplos simples, desenhos de estudo claros, questões em que a resposta seja
linear. A realidade, porém, é muito mais rica, complicada e não linear. Nalguns
casos, aparenta chocar com as regras da Estatística. Por exemplo, é frequente
que quem trabalha com animais se queixe de não poder ter um tamanho amostral
grande. E, se relativamente a isso a Estatística é clara (para se fazer
inferência é preciso calcular o tamanho amostral <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">a priori</i>), a prática vai noutra direcção - raramente se deixa de
fazer um trabalho por considerações sobre o tamanho amostral. É também comum
apresentarem-se valores-p em situações que não faz sentido. Se nalgumas
revistas já começa a ser colocado em causa o foco excessivo no valor-p<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="PT" style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[10]</span></span></span></span></a>,
este ainda é necessário para conseguir publicações com impacto na maioria das
áreas.</span><br />
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">A aparente ou real falta de consenso e harmonia entre as exigências da
Estatística (e do bom senso) e as exigências do sucesso académico levam a que
facilmente as primeiras sejam abandonadas ou deturpadas. A persistência em
erros comuns é ainda banal, embora vá havendo cada vez maior discussão e
esforço para depurar a Ciência. Em particular, vê-se com assustadora
frequência:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">a indefinição da questão de investigação;</span></li>
</ul>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">o recurso a um número excessivo de testes estatísticos num mesmo trabalho,
sem recurso a correcção para comparações múltiplas;</span></li>
</ul>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">a interpretação abusiva do valor-p;</span></li>
</ul>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">o recurso a testes paramétricos quando deveriam ser não paramétricos;</span></li>
</ul>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">más representações gráficas dos resultados<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="PT" style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[11]</span></span></span></span></a>,
que induzem a interpretações erradas</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> Urge procurar caminhos que compatibilizem o rigor da Estatística e do
Método Científico com as práticas académicas. Se o rigor é inegociável, ou se
alteram as práticas na sua substância ou estas terão de ser reinterpretadas, de
forma a que explicitamente se afirme os limites da sua validade. Nesse sentido,
há algumas ideias que poderão ser úteis:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Qualquer trabalho de índole estatístico deverá ter duas fases: uma fase
de planeamento e uma fase de concretização. Na primeira fase, terá de
definir-se claramente qual é a questão de investigação a que se pretende
responder. Tudo o resto ficará subordinado a esta questão. Desta forma, a
análise dos dados obtidos é determinada claramente pela questão de investigação,
que não faz sentido definir <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">a posteriori</i>;</span></li>
</ul>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">É importante distinguir trabalhos exploratórios ou descritivos de
trabalhos confirmatórios. Nos últimos pretende-se responder a uma questão muito
específica, sendo o foco colocado na inferência. Nos primeiros pretende-se
fazer um trabalho meramente descritivo (sem desprimor para a sua importância)
ou procurar questões que possam ser posteriormente reanalisadas num trabalho
confirmatório. Em trabalhos confirmatórios é fundamental fazer o cálculo do
tamanho da amostra. Não sendo isto feito, o trabalho é automaticamente
exploratório ou descritivo, não fazendo sentido calcular valores-p no seu
sentido usual<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="PT" style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[12]</span></span></span></span></a>;</span></li>
</ul>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">O valor-p, como interpretado no sentido usual, apenas deverá ser
calculado quando se pretenda fazer inferência estatística. Para esse efeito,
deverá ter-se tido em conta cálculos do tamanho amostral. Mais ainda, o valor-p
não deverá ser apresentado sem que, em conjunto, se apresentem medidas
descritivas. De facto, é importante distinguir entre significância estatística
e significância biológica (ou clínica) - o valor-p apenas se refere à primeira<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="PT" style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[13]</span></span></span></span></a>;</span></li>
</ul>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Nalguns casos é possível calcular o valor-p sem se ter calculado primeiro
o tamanho da amostra. Assim, mesmo em estudos exploratórios ou descritivos é aceitável
a apresentação de valores-p. Porém, o significado dos mesmos devem ser
clarificados: não se pretendendo fazer inferência, o valor-p serve como uma
medida de tamanho do efeito, sendo meramente descritivo. Neste sentido, ter-se
p<α não tem o significado usual de se ter significância estatística<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftn14" name="_ftnref14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="PT" style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[14]</span></span></span></span></a>,
ou seja, de se poder concluir algo relativamente à população. A interpretação
deverá ser diferente: quanto mais pequeno for o valor-p, maior será o tamanho
do efeito que se observa.</span></li>
</ul>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">É possível fazer muitos testes estatísticos num mesmo trabalho, mas terá
de se recorrer a correcções para comparações múltiplas ou interpretar os
valores-p obtidos no sentido exposto no último ponto - como sendo uma medida do
tamanho do efeito. </span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Na verdade, as regras da Estatística, do Método Científico e do bom senso
deverão aplicar-se sempre. Compatibilizar as mesmas com as práticas exigidas
para se obter sucesso académico pode ser difícil, mas ou é possível ou o
sucesso será imerecido. Uma transferência de saber transparente clarificando os
aspectos anteriormente discutidos também ajuda o leitor a julgar de forma
crítica os achados em cada trabalho.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;">
<br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a>
A este respeito, vale a pena ler o artigo: Ioannidis JPA (2005) Why Most
Published Research Findings Are False. PLoS Med 2(8): e124. doi:
10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124 ou o artigo “Estimating the reproducibility of psychological
science”: Open Science Collaboration, Science 349, aac4716 (2015). <span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">DOI: 10.1126/science.aac4716.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> Ver, por exemplo, o seguinte artigo
publicado por personagens dos Simpsons </span><a href="http://www.sciencealert.com/two-scientific-journals-have-accepted-a-study-by-maggie-simpson-and-edna-krabappel"><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">http://www.sciencealert.com/two-scientific-journals-have-accepted-a-study-by-maggie-simpson-and-edna-krabappel</span></a><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> ou um artigo com linguagem imprópria em </span><a href="http://www.vox.com/2014/11/21/7259207/scientific-paper-scam"><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">http://www.vox.com/2014/11/21/7259207/scientific-paper-scam</span></a><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn3" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[3]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> Um exemplo famoso da colocação de uma
pergunta <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">a posteriori</i> (que
estatisticamente se traduz pela necessidade de efectuar uma correcção para
comparações múltiplas) é explicado pelo autor de um artigo que proclamava
mostrar que comer chocolate preto ajuda a emagrecer. Na verdade, a colocação da
questão de investigação <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">a posteriori</i>
foi propositado e teve como objectivo demonstrar que este é um erro comum, como
explica o próprio autor do artigo aqui: </span><a href="http://io9.gizmodo.com/i-fooled-millions-into-thinking-chocolate-helps-weight-1707251800"><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">http://io9.gizmodo.com/i-fooled-millions-into-thinking-chocolate-helps-weight-1707251800</span></a><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn4" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> <span lang="PT">Ver </span></span><a href="http://laboratoriobioestatistica.blogspot.pt/2016/03/perguntas-frequentes-em-bioestatistica.html"><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">http://laboratoriobioestatistica.blogspot.pt/2016/03/perguntas-frequentes-em-bioestatistica.html</span></a><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn5" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[5]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> O cálculo de um valor-p é efectuado tendo
em conta a amostra e a população. Por outras palavras, quando se aplica um
teste estatístico a dados amostrais, calcula-se um valor-p. Quando este é
inferior ao nível de significância (tipicamente α=0.05) rejeita-se a hipótese
nula para toda população. Por exemplo, se ao comparar níveis médios de
colesterol entre amostras de dois grupos, se obtiver p<α, então pode-se
inferir que há diferenças entre as médias populacionais dos níveis de
colesterol dos dois grupos. A partir das amostras dos grupos infere-se o que
acontece na população.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn6" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[6]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> <span lang="PT">Ver </span></span><a href="http://laboratoriobioestatistica.blogspot.pt/2016/02/perguntas-frequentes-em-bioestatistica.html"><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">http://laboratoriobioestatistica.blogspot.pt/2016/02/perguntas-frequentes-em-bioestatistica.html</span></a><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn7" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[7]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> Ver </span><a href="http://laboratoriobioestatistica.blogspot.pt/2015/12/perguntas-frequentes-em-bioestatistica.html"><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">http://laboratoriobioestatistica.blogspot.pt/2015/12/perguntas-frequentes-em-bioestatistica.html</span></a><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn8" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[8]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> <span lang="PT">Ver Sullivan, G. M., & Feinn,
R. (2012). </span></span>Using Effect Size—or Why the <i>P</i> Value Is Not
Enough. <i>Journal of Graduate Medical Education</i>, <i>4</i>(3), 279–282.
http://doi.org/10.4300/JGME-D-12-00156.1.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn9" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[9]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> São comuns as queixas do ensino da Estatística
ser muito desfasado da realidade com que o investigador se depara. Descontadas
as naturais faltas de perfeição dos professores da disciplina, até certo ponto
tal desfasamento deve-se à realidade exigir um grau de complexidade que
transvasa aquilo que se pode ensinar em poucas horas. Porém, também tem a ver
com um desrespeito generalizado que se verifica, no mundo da Ciência, pelo
Método Científico. Se cabe ou não à Estatística - ou apenas à Estatística - procurar
resolver este último aspecto é discutível.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn10" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[10]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> <span lang="PT">Não se coloca aqui em causa a
importância do valor-p, mas sim que o mesmo seja excessivamente calculado e
valorizado: ver </span></span><a href="http://laboratoriobioestatistica.blogspot.pt/2015/05/p-value-o-grande-enganador-ou-como.html"><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">http://laboratoriobioestatistica.blogspot.pt/2015/05/p-value-o-grande-enganador-ou-como.html</span></a><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">. Vale também a pena ler o artigo seminal Johnson,
D. (1999). </span>The Insignificance of Statistical Significance Testing. The
Journal of Wildlife Management, 63(3), 763-772. doi:1. <span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3802789
doi:1.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn11" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[11]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> Por exemplo, apesar da sua quase
omnipresença, o uso de gráficos de barras para representar variáveis
quantitativas deve ser desencorajado, ver por exemplo Streit M, Gehlenborg N.
Bar charts and box plots. Nat Methods 2014; 11:117.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn12" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[12]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> <span lang="PT">Por sentido usual, pretendemos
dizer no sentido inferencial. Por outras palavras, a menos que o estudo seja
confirmatório, o objectivo não deverá ser verificar se uma determinada
hipótese, colocada relativamente a uma população, pode ou não ser rejeitada.</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn13" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[13]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> Ver, a este respeito, </span><a href="http://laboratoriobioestatistica.blogspot.pt/2015/12/perguntas-frequentes-em-bioestatistica.html"><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">http://laboratoriobioestatistica.blogspot.pt/2015/12/perguntas-frequentes-em-bioestatistica.html</span></a><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">.</span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[14]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> Não se pode, desta forma, afirmar haver
diferenças estatisticamente significativas. É possível explicitar qual foi o
valor-p obtido, mas tendo em conta que este é uma medida do tamanho do efeito e
não uma indicação de podermos ou não inferir algo acerca da população.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-38843935004789461312016-05-19T17:05:00.000+01:002016-05-19T17:05:04.213+01:00Perguntas frequentes em bioestatística #14. Com a estatística também se erra?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">A seguinte mensagem é a décima quarta comunicação da série <u>Perguntas
Frequentes em Bioestatística</u>, da autoria de membros do Laboratório de
Bioestatística e Informática Médica da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de
Coimbra. Pretende-se fomentar uma discussão sobre as melhores práticas
estatísticas na área da saúde.</span></div>
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<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Bárbara Oliveiros, Francisco Caramelo e Miguel
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Em análise estatística existem vários tipos de erros, tanto na fase de desenho
do estudo quanto na fase de aplicação do protocolo experimental. Os erros podem
ocorrer na colheita dos dados, no seu registo, na sua análise ou mesmo ao
relatar resultados e extrair conclusões. Por outro lado, também os próprios métodos
estatísticos assentam na medição da incerteza, com bases fortes na teoria de
probabilidades. Deste modo, em Estatística, não existem resultados exactos, mas
apenas resultados prováveis. Sendo-se mais preciso e adoptando a perspectiva
das teorias frequencistas que remontam ao início do século XX (tendo como “pai”
Sir Ronald Fisher e sendo estas as mais utilizadas actualmente), os resultados
em estatística são prováveis com um determinado grau de confiança, ou com um
erro inferior a um limite pré-estabelecido. Citando Samuel Langhorne Clemens,
mais conhecido por Mark Twain, “há mentiras, mentiras malditas e estatísticas”.
Isto não significa que todas as estatísticas sejam mentira, mas também não
significa que todas as estatísticas sejam 100% verdade. Existe sempre algum
erro associado a qualquer inferência estatística que se faça de uma amostra
para a população.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">É útil distinguir duas fases numa análise estatística: “Estatística
Descritiva” e “Estatística Inferencial”. No que diz respeito à estatística
descritiva, esta pode ser realizada relativamente a uma amostra ou para toda a
população, pelo que não existe erro associado às medidas obtidas para além do
próprio erro inerente às medições e instrumentos de medida usados. A partir do
momento em que fazemos inferência acerca dos valores observados na amostra (procurando
extrair informação para a população), então temos ainda de somar aos erros das
medições e instrumentos de medida o erro associado à amostragem, uma vez que
estamos a tirar conclusões para um conjunto de sujeitos para os quais não efectuámos
medições directas.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">O processo de inferência estatística divide-se geralmente ainda em “Teoria
da Estimação”, onde são vulgarmente utilizados intervalos de confiança para um
dado parâmetro, e “Teoria da Decisão” onde se aplica um ou mais testes
estatísticos. Terá de se ter em atenção que o conjunto de testes estatísticos a
aplicar deverá ser o indicado para responder à questão de investigação colocada
e também deverá estar de acordo com o nível de mensuração das variáveis e com o
papel das mesmas. A não observância destes cuidados leva certamente à
introdução de um factor de erro adicional na análise. Naturalmente, esta não é
a única premissa que preside à escolha dos testes: em cada estudo, o conjunto
de testes a aplicar deverá ter em conta o princípio segundo o qual se deve
recorrer à aplicação do teste mais potente para cada situação, como explicitado
de seguida.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Um teste estatístico tem por base duas hipóteses, denominadas por hipótese
nula (H<sub>0</sub>), que é considerada verdadeira até prova em contrário, e
hipótese alternativa (H<sub>1</sub> ou H<sub>A</sub>). A sua aplicação visa
determinar se existe evidência suficiente para se abandonar a hipótese nula e
tomar como verdadeira a alternativa. A formulação da hipótese nula, que como o
nome indica representa uma “nulidade”, é baseada numa ausência de efeito que se
pode traduzir, por exemplo, na ausência de diferença ou na ausência de
associação. Obviamente que na população nunca podemos determinar se a hipótese
nula é realmente válida ou não, a não ser realizando um <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">censo</i>. No entanto, a partir dos dados amostrais podemos tentar avaliar
a plausibilidade da hipótese nula: partindo do pressuposto de que a mesma é
verdadeira, mede-se a probabilidade de se encontrar dados amostrais como os
observados ou mais afastados do que seria expectável. A esta probabilidade
dá-se o nome de valor-p, ou probabilidade de significância. Na prática, quando
se encontra um valor-p pequeno, rejeita-se a hipótese nula e toma-se como
verdadeira a hipótese alternativa. Naturalmente, nem sempre tal é correcto:
poderá por mero acaso encontrar-se uma amostra distante do que seria de
esperar, à qual corresponderá um valor-p pequeno, e ainda a hipótese nula ser
verdadeira. É improvável, mas possível. Quando tal acontece e se rejeita a
hipótese nula, comete-se um erro tipo I. O limite superior que estamos
dispostos a aceitar para este erro é normalmente representado por </span><span lang="PT" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: PT;">a</span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> e denomina-se nível de significância do teste
estatístico: tal leva a que se rejeita a hipótese nula quando p<</span><span lang="el">α</span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">. O nível de significância (</span><span lang="PT" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: PT;"><span lang="el">α</span>)</span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> do teste deve ser definido <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">a priori</i> no desenho do estudo, de forma a não dar azo à escolha conveniente
de um nível de significância que permita rejeitar a hipótese nula após análise
dos dados - este procedimento, além de introduzir um viés no estudo, também
invalida o desenho do mesmo. Normalmente, é usado o valor </span><span lang="el">α</span><span lang="PT" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: PT;"></span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> = 0,05. Assim, sempre que se obtenha um valor-p
inferior a 5% poderemos afirmar que existe evidência estatística suficiente
para rejeitar a hipótese nula. Dado que a hipótese nula indica ausência de
efeito, a rejeição da mesma significa em linguagem comum que o efeito observado
nos dados amostrais pode ser estendido para a população. Interessa enfatizar
que esta afirmação de inferência para a população tem evidentemente associado
um erro potencial igual ao valor-p obtido.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Como vimos, o valor de </span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-text-raise: -4.5pt; position: relative; top: 4.5pt;">
</span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>adoptado num estudo limita a probabilidade
máxima de se cometer erros tipo I. Note-se que a escolha do nível de
significância (</span><span lang="el">α</span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">) depende
do estudo em causa. Em determinados estudos, como por exemplo nos ensaios de
bioequivalência de fármacos para introdução de fármacos novos no mercado, é
importante considerar pequenos efeitos como estatisticamente significativos.
Desta forma, o nível de significância a considerar é maior que os habituais 5%:
usualmente é de 10%. Ao invés, quando se pretende reduzir a ocorrência de
falsos positivos face ao aumento de falsos negativos, ou seja, se pretendermos
tornar o teste estatístico mais específico à custa da perda na sensibilidade, então
é preferível usar </span><span lang="el">α</span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> = 0,01. Contudo,
qualquer que seja o nível de significância a adoptar, este deve ser definido <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">a priori</i> e ser constante ao longo de
todo o estudo.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Os erros tipo I também podem ocorrer no cálculo de estimativas intervalares
para parâmetros. De facto, a estatística reproduz a incerteza nos resultados recorrendo
a intervalos de confiança. Como o nome indica, o intervalo de confiança é um
intervalo de valores dentro do qual se estima que o parâmetro em consideração
(e.g. média, proporção, variância) se encontre com uma confiança de (1-</span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"><span lang="el">α</span>)x100%</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-text-raise: -4.5pt; position: relative; top: 4.5pt;">
</span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">. Por exemplo, o
intervalo de confiança para a média a </span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">95% (IC95%) indica o intervalo de valores dentro do qual se pressupõe estar
a média da população com uma probabilidade de 95%. Percebe-se, então, que a
apresentação do intervalo de confiança admite uma possibilidade de erro
(exprime incerteza) que no caso do IC95% seria de 5%.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Portanto, quando vemos publicitado que um determinado candidato tem entre
40 a 45% das intenções de voto, com 95% de confiança, sabemos que com base nas
intenções de voto obtidas por uma sondagem (amostra, supostamente aleatória e
representativa da população), o valor esperado para a proporção de votos de
toda a população estaria entre os 40 e os 45%, sendo o erro associado de 5%. Quando
um anúncio afirma “perca até 10 kg em 2 meses”, é razoável subentender-se que
se tivermos obtido 100 amostras diferentes de pessoas que experimentaram a
dieta em causa, em cerca de 95 amostras a redução média de peso em 2 meses tinha
sido um valor até 10 kg. Contudo, é importante notar que a redução anunciada de
10 kg é uma média pelo que nalguns casos a redução foi menor ou poderá até ter
havido aumento de peso. Ora, conhecer o limite inferior do intervalo de
confiança torna-se fundamental já que se este for negativo, significa que pode
haver lugar ao aumento do peso médio. Em termos de teste de hipóteses a
ausência de efeito da dieta (H<sub>0</sub>) traduz-se por uma redução nula. Se
o intervalo de confiança para a redução de peso fosse tal que o limite inferior
é negativo e o superior é positivo isto indicaria que a redução nula (valor
zero de redução) se encontra dentro do intervalo. Por conseguinte, teríamos de
admitir que nesse caso não existiria um efeito estatisticamente significativo
(logo, que não existiria evidência para rejeitar a hipótese nula).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Centrámo-nos até ao momento no erro tipo I que ocorre quando se rejeita a
hipótese nula mas a mesma é realmente verdadeira. Contudo, outro erro pode
ocorrer não rejeitar a hipótese nula e ela ser realmente falsa. Designa-se este
erro por erro tipo II e a sua probabilidade de ocorrência é normalmente representada
por </span><span lang="el">β</span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">. Na prática, em vez de nos centrarmos no
valor de </span><span lang="PT" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: PT;"><span lang="el">β</span>,
</span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">é mais usual pensar na
probabilidade da rejeição da hipótese nula sendo ela realmente falsa, ou seja,
em (1 - </span><span lang="el">β</span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">). Esta quantidade designa-se por potência
do teste, sendo desejável que seja o mais alta possível (apontando-se o valor
de 80% como potência mínima desejável). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Ao realizar um teste de hipóteses, qualquer que seja a decisão que tomemos acerca
da rejeição ou não da hipótese nula, e dado que nunca conhecemos a sua
veracidade a não ser que possamos medir toda a população (e nessa situação o
teste estatístico é desnecessário), teremos sempre presente a probabilidade de
cometer erros tipo I e tipo II. Estes erros estão dependentes da dimensão do
efeito observado (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">effect size<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="PT" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: PT; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[1]</span></b></span></span></span></a></i>),
que por sua vez depende da dimensão da amostra e da sua variabilidade. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Na figura 1 podemos observar um exemplo da variação da potência do teste
t-Student, bicaudal, em função da dimensão da amostra. O gráfico foi obtido
tendo como fixos o <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">effect size</i> (d =
0,225) e o nível de significância (</span><span lang="PT" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: PT;">a</span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> = 0,05) e recorrendo ao <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">software</i>
GPower. Podemos observar que para detectar o tamanho do efeito considerado com uma
potência mínima dentro do que é considerado como razoável (80%), seria
necessário ter uma amostra de dimensão n = 160.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7VqVLhKGWnKvfW7fHlDfmAE-JFsc5DO-B48qnJ4kIZahwBAiJzdULm-kidO8wRZRRPi9G-z68fzVgRIqaqJWSzcpvpqOxt1kSQgbUc5BtCRE9bXVCncPKPqdZGrot9pCKX66D6IYfW2Wd/s1600/fig1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="350" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7VqVLhKGWnKvfW7fHlDfmAE-JFsc5DO-B48qnJ4kIZahwBAiJzdULm-kidO8wRZRRPi9G-z68fzVgRIqaqJWSzcpvpqOxt1kSQgbUc5BtCRE9bXVCncPKPqdZGrot9pCKX66D6IYfW2Wd/s640/fig1.png" width="640" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Figura 1 – Variação da potência do teste t-Student para uma amostra
(bilateral) de acordo com a variação da dimensão da amostra</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">O nível de significância (</span><span lang="el">α)</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-text-raise: -5.5pt; position: relative; top: 5.5pt;">
</span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">, a potência do
teste (1-</span><span lang="el">β</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-text-raise: -5.5pt; position: relative; top: 5.5pt;"></span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">), o tamanho do
efeito e o tamanho da amostra </span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">estão interligados e, por isso, qualquer alteração num deles provoca
alterações nos restantes. As relações existentes entre estes factores permitem
então realizar dois tipos de cálculos diferentes: tamanho da amostra e potência
de um estudo. O cálculo do tamanho da amostra realiza-se fixando o nível de
significância (</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-text-raise: -4.5pt; position: relative; top: 4.5pt;"><span lang="el"></span></span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"></span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"><span lang="el">α)</span>, a potência
do teste </span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">(1-</span><span lang="el">β</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-text-raise: -5.5pt; position: relative; top: 5.5pt;"></span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">) e o tamanho do
efeito (</span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">o qual é estimado
recorrendo a estudos piloto, a publicações existentes ou a considerações sobre
significância clínica). Já a potência do estudo é feita fixando o nível de
significância (</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-text-raise: -4.5pt; position: relative; top: 4.5pt;"></span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"><span lang="el">α</span>), usando
o tamanho da amostra que se usou e o tamanho do efeito que foi observado no
estudo realizado. Como se pode depreender, o cálculo do tamanho da amostra é
uma análise que é feita antes do estudo ser realizado e o cálculo da potência é
feito depois do estudo ter sido concluído.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Na figura 2, obtida na aplicação GPower, podemos observar as variações (o
aumento) da potência do teste Z (bicaudal) devido às variações (aumento) do <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">effect size</i>. Quanto maior o efeito, mais
provável é obtermos diferenças estatisticamente significativas, e também mais
provável é estas diferenças serem, de facto, verdadeiras.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAS5DGjU8RQWkrmN4_zihnd301SLH5SjrzE_e6Iq8ibLpJWQwfgdSJQzpb-I0P8vHPlOHxBJjeRl468uvSUYgVguSRsYuH1I1V488M2Yeahv2G_ERZp2ZpOJDMSDzUH_R41ZNtzGZdURWz/s1600/fig2.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="547" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAS5DGjU8RQWkrmN4_zihnd301SLH5SjrzE_e6Iq8ibLpJWQwfgdSJQzpb-I0P8vHPlOHxBJjeRl468uvSUYgVguSRsYuH1I1V488M2Yeahv2G_ERZp2ZpOJDMSDzUH_R41ZNtzGZdURWz/s640/fig2.png" width="640" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"><br /></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Figura 2 – Variação da potência do teste Z (bicaudal) de acordo com a
variação na dimensão do efito (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">effect
size</i>)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Não podemos contudo deixar de frisar que a ausência de diferenças
estatisticamente significativas não significa que não existam diferenças
clinicamente significativas, pelo todos estes aspectos devem ser ponderados.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Na próxima edição do <u>Perguntas Frequentes em Bioestatística</u>: “E
quando as regras da estatística não se parecem aplicar?”</span></div>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;">
<br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> O effect size é uma quantidade que
exprime as diferenças que esperamos encontrar entre dois grupos. Por exemplo,
se o grupo A tiver média 10 e desvio padrão 2 e o grupo B tiver média 5 e
desvio padrão também 2, o effect size será (10-5)/2=2.5. Quanto maior o effect
size, maiores serão as diferenças entre os grupos (tendo em conta a variância
em cada grupo).</span></div>
</div>
</div>
<br />
</div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-10514096098883837692016-05-13T11:31:00.004+01:002016-05-13T11:31:57.449+01:00Cursos LBIM 2016<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Até ao Verão o <a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica" target="_blank">Laboratório de Bioestatística e Informática Médica</a> (LBIM) da <a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/" target="_blank">Faculdade de Medicina</a> da <a href="http://www.uc.pt/" target="_blank">Universidade de Coimbra</a> oferece 3 cursos:</div>
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica/Courses/documentos_extra/C7" target="_self" title="">Modelos de regressão</a>, dia 20 de Maio</li>
<li><a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica/Courses/documentos_extra/C8.pdf" target="_self" title="">Análise de risco e análise de
sobrevivência</a>, dia 17 de Junho</li>
<li><a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica/Courses/documentos_extra/C9.pdf" target="_self" title="">ANOVA e GLM</a>, dia 15 de Julho</li>
</ul>
<br />
Para inscrições ou mais informações, poderá consultar o <a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica/Courses" target="_blank">site</a>.</div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-66056412921614122172016-05-11T11:15:00.001+01:002016-05-11T11:15:40.494+01:00A ciência, vista por John Oliver<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Uma das maiores preocupações do <a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica" target="_blank">Laboratório de Bioestatística e Informática Médica</a> é a qualidade da investigação nas Ciências da Saúde. Cada vez mais, no ensino e na prática diária, colocamos maior ênfase em metodologias (e no método científico) que em fórmulas. Os cursos <a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica/Courses" target="_blank">LBIM 2016</a> são prova disso mesmo: os dois primeiros cursos foram dedicados ao <a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica/Courses/documentos_extra/C1.pdf" target="_blank">desenho de estudo</a> e a como <a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica/Courses/documentos_extra/C2.pdf" target="_blank">pensar problemas do ponto de vista estatístico</a>. Tudo o mais, é instrumental. Em Setembro, oferecemos um curso de uma tarde dedicado à <a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica/Courses/documentos_extra/C10.pdf" target="_blank">Investigação Replicável</a>. Queremos discutir o que está mal na Ciência e como evitar os erros mais comuns. Naturalmente, a preocupação não é só nossa. Vale a pena ver o vídeo:</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<iframe width="320" height="266" class="YOUTUBE-iframe-video" data-thumbnail-src="https://i.ytimg.com/vi/0Rnq1NpHdmw/0.jpg" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/0Rnq1NpHdmw?feature=player_embedded" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe></div>
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</div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-73455715846097056462016-05-11T11:07:00.002+01:002016-05-11T11:07:25.969+01:00Final da época desportiva vista do ponto de vista estatístico<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Agora que a época desportiva futebolística se aproxima do final, acende-se a discussão de qual foi a melhor equipa este ano: Benfica ou Sporting. Opiniões subjectivas há para todos os gostos, quem preferir dados mais objectivos pode consultar este <a href="http://goalpoint.pt/blog/futebolnacional/benfica-vs-sporting-quem-merece-ser-campeao_29340" target="_blank">site</a>.</div>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://goalpoint.pt/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/GP-destaque-SLB-x-SCP-quem-merece2-Mai2016-1074x483.jpg?228d97" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://goalpoint.pt/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/GP-destaque-SLB-x-SCP-quem-merece2-Mai2016-1074x483.jpg?228d97" height="286" width="640" /></a></div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-92096668097366680642016-04-04T16:16:00.000+01:002016-04-04T16:16:04.609+01:00LBIM no Porto<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Tivemos a felicidade de ser convidados para dar uma aula de Estatística na <a href="http://www.estsp.ipp.pt/site/" target="_blank">Escola Superior de Tecnologia da Saúde do Instituto Politécnico do Porto</a>, sendo esta dividida em três partes:</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
- Importância de uma boa definição da questão de investigação;<br />
- Técnicas estatísticas: quais existem e como escolher entre elas;<br />
- Roteiro para o desenho de um estudo clínico;</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Foram 4 horas intensas, com muita participação por parte da audiência e com direito até a bolo de aniversário (pão de ló com recheio e cobertura de chocolate). Seguem as fotos.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgsFufL0uzR39VW6oN4HXfl42lXwvGELKJ7GWiZ14NqMAMwTbYOROARKj9lqRB769ZB5WKxVS-2YwcCAmf-larS5cN5ILGodkh2rHE3cvdaS1iX6wI06LAvLDCQaEEpADW19jWJ-AI24djR/s1600/20160402_121016.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="225" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgsFufL0uzR39VW6oN4HXfl42lXwvGELKJ7GWiZ14NqMAMwTbYOROARKj9lqRB769ZB5WKxVS-2YwcCAmf-larS5cN5ILGodkh2rHE3cvdaS1iX6wI06LAvLDCQaEEpADW19jWJ-AI24djR/s400/20160402_121016.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiC0AMSh52aWSGxOVzb-XAzi0vcGGxL98Dil1ZlgWGoCEVR8dbY8nq26ytg7jwX0XUbH2_j5OnGAeFy-gD7jrOJnxC3xj7eQd5_Ltx4dFWE3KoyQK9f6CRm9xlFL2uZsONtQYwujLM8t2Mj/s1600/20160402_121026.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="225" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiC0AMSh52aWSGxOVzb-XAzi0vcGGxL98Dil1ZlgWGoCEVR8dbY8nq26ytg7jwX0XUbH2_j5OnGAeFy-gD7jrOJnxC3xj7eQd5_Ltx4dFWE3KoyQK9f6CRm9xlFL2uZsONtQYwujLM8t2Mj/s400/20160402_121026.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9nzwnqd64ZdNft4w6_WMlUOjyc39GDw38JvbNp3qwqbT_BVIQd4x6Cht3WJX-2W0lenguEt6qIXkXOVCdBm158VsBKVle8HUEXB6hNpVVfYT4P0ilwz1dewHAKqopBHMtthf70GAOvTy7/s1600/20160402_121032.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="225" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9nzwnqd64ZdNft4w6_WMlUOjyc39GDw38JvbNp3qwqbT_BVIQd4x6Cht3WJX-2W0lenguEt6qIXkXOVCdBm158VsBKVle8HUEXB6hNpVVfYT4P0ilwz1dewHAKqopBHMtthf70GAOvTy7/s400/20160402_121032.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-38670058708209683912016-04-04T11:28:00.000+01:002016-04-04T11:28:13.009+01:00Correlações<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
"<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" target="_blank">Correlation does not imply causation</a>" é das frases de inspiração estatística mais repetidas. E, de facto, não faltam exemplos (alguns até bastante cómicos) de <a href="http://tylervigen.com/spurious-correlations" target="_blank">correlações espúrias</a>. Ainda assim, a análise da correlação entre variáveis é uma ferramenta muito importante em Ciência. E agora, para os mais <i>nerds</i>, <a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/03/the-8-bit-game-that-makes-statistics-addictive/475848/" target="_blank">é também um jogo</a>. Quem quiser adivinhar o grau de correlação entre duas variáveis quantitativas, poderá fazê-lo <a href="http://guessthecorrelation.com/" target="_blank">aqui</a>.</div>
</div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-1124320168303362412016-03-28T10:54:00.001+01:002016-03-30T11:11:36.080+01:00Perguntas frequentes em bioestatística #13. O que é uma boa questão de investigação?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Frequentes em Bioestatística</u>, da autoria de membros do Laboratório de
Bioestatística e Informática Médica da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de
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<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Miguel Patrício e Francisco Caramelo</span></div>
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<li>Na fase de desenho de estudo, a questão de investigação é formulada e define-se o protocolo que se seguirá para recolher e analisar os dados que lhe poderão responder; </li>
<li>No fase do estudo clínico, aplica-se o protocolo: efectuam-se as medições planeadas, analizam-se os dados, discutem-se e apresentam-se os resultados. </li>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br />
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">O desenho do estudo é a etapa crucial de planeamento que antecede um estudo
clínico. Deverão definir-se todos os aspectos do protocolo, como o tipo de
estudo, critérios de inclusão e exclusão, método de amostragem, tamanho da
amostra, medidas a efectuar, estrutura da base de dados ou plano de análise estatística
previsto. O protocolo deverá ser plasmado num documento de uma forma rigorosa,
rígida e completamente objectiva: todos os passos de obtenção e armazenamento
de dados definidos deverão ser seguidos aquando da realização do estudo
clínico, sem qualquer desvio<span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="PT" style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span></span></span>.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">A fase de desenho de estudo pode ser, em simultâneo, entusiasmante e angustiante.
De facto, há a liberdade de se definir o que se pretende vir a investigar.
Porém, com esta vem a dificuldade de encontrar uma boa questão de investigação,
que garanta sucesso. Não é fácil fazê-lo e a margem de erro é muito pequena: a
escolha de uma má questão de investigação irá ter repercussões ao longo do
estudo, ao nível dos resultados obtidos e até na forma como os mesmos serão recebidos
pela comunidade científica. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Uma vez encontrada uma questão de investigação, há alguns critérios para
avaliar a qualidade da mesma, que deverá ser<span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="PT" style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></span></span></span>:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Feasible (exequível) - de nada valerá formular uma questão de investigação se não for possível obter, com os recursos disponíveis, uma resposta esclarecedora;</span></li>
<li><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Interesting (interessante) - a questão de investigação deve ser motivante, para quem vai desenhar e implementar o estudo. Se não o for, o nível de esforço a que a investigação científica obriga dificilmente será comportável e recompensante;</span></li>
<li><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Novel (nova) - o estudo deverá acrescentar algo ao que já é sabido na ciência</span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="PT" style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif";">3</span>]</span></span></span></span></span>;</span></li>
<li><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Ethical (ética) - apenas será aceitável seguir com o estudo se este não transgredir princípios éticos;</span></li>
<li><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Relevant (relevante) - mesmo que se faça um estudo perfeito, se os resultados não tiverem qualquer interesse e pertinência, perde-se tempo e dinheiro.</span></li>
</ul>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Encontrar uma questão de investigação que reúna todas as condições para se
ter sucesso não é fácil e exige muito trabalho. Há, porém, fontes de boas
questões. A primeira destas é a literatura: nos artigos já publicados os
autores apresentam o estado actual da investigação no seu campo e é muito
frequente indicarem questões que estão por resolver. Qualquer candidata a
questão de investigação deverá ser analisada tendo por base o que a literatura
reporta. Também é frequente que surjam boas questões de investigação a quem já
trabalha numa determinada área. A experiência, intuição (e conhecimento do que
já foi feito e do que falta fazer) destes investigadores poderá ser
aproveitada. Assim, qualquer candidata a questão de investigação deverá passar
por um processo de depuração, em que a mesma é discutida com outros investigadores
e avaliada face à literatura, ver Figura 1. Seguidamente, terá de definir-se
uma estratégia (noutras palavras, um rascunho de um protocolo) para responder à
questão, fazendo uma previsão dos dados que é necessário obter, das medidas que
se poderão efectuar, dos custos envolvidos e todos os demais aspectos
necessários para a concretização de um estudo que permita obter a resposta
pretendida. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-no-proof: yes;">
</span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjkUFzvcupJnFbCkRYVAaurJTQfgIidd4xHEenx-VFrUtLLXcwKQnKkIf5wJowfeyR__XQ3A3ubTTgPeLKl5rtLDG2IIbn72iTctP1A1ZErFTed1fMXvhDzuk-xNqXT5X1yU04zOlwBD1cD/s1600/fig.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="342" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjkUFzvcupJnFbCkRYVAaurJTQfgIidd4xHEenx-VFrUtLLXcwKQnKkIf5wJowfeyR__XQ3A3ubTTgPeLKl5rtLDG2IIbn72iTctP1A1ZErFTed1fMXvhDzuk-xNqXT5X1yU04zOlwBD1cD/s640/fig.png" width="640" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Figura 1. Processo de escolha de uma boa questão de investigação.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">A questão de investigação deverá ser avaliada em função do seu interesse,
novidade e relevância. A estratégia poderá ser avaliada em função da sua
exequibilidade e considerando princípios éticos e do método científico<span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="PT" style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span></span></span>.
Uma vez tendo-se uma boa questão e uma boa estratégia, urge responder a uma
pergunta crucial: a análise dos dados prevista pela estratégia permitirá
responder à questão de forma cabal? Se sim, poderá definir-se o protocolo de
estudo de forma precisa, reavaliar se ainda se considera estar perante uma boa
questão de investigação e uma boa estratégia e em caso positivo avançar-se para
o estudo.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Na maioria dos casos, a escolha de uma questão de investigação é um processo
iterativo longo. Muitas vezes não se sabe se se está perante uma boa questão
antes de a explorar: formulando-a, lendo-a à luz da literatura, discutindo-a
com outras pessoas, avaliando possíveis métodos de encontrar uma resposta à
mesma. Todo este processo pode ser longo e até frustrante e cansativo. Porém a
escolha de uma boa questão de investigação e o planeamento do protocolo são
cruciais para o sucesso de qualquer estudo. É importante, em todos os momentos,
saber manter o foco: a quantidade de questões interessantes no mundo é inumerável,
contudo num estudo particular apenas quereremos considerar uma. Haverá outras
certamente interessantes, mas apenas se pode responder de forma conclusiva a
uma questão de cada vez. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Note-se que a insistência na necessidade de se definir apenas uma questão
de investigação não implica que não se possa responder a outras questões num
mesmo estudo. Pode, mas serão secundárias e deverão ser consideradas como tal.
Mais ainda, as questões secundárias deverão ter uma relação com a questão
principal, não podendo ser desligadas da mesma. Este é um princípio de economia
de recursos e de foco sobre o que interessa.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">FAQ:</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">1- Em que consiste um plano de análise estatística das variáveis?</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Para além de se definir claramente a questão de investigação, deverá
definir-se também a medida principal e o teste estatístico que mais
directamente responderá à questão de investigação. Este último teste fará parte
do plano de análise estatística das variáveis. Neste constarão todas as
técnicas de obtenção de resultados a partir dos dados.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">2- Não é impossível, na fase do plano de estudos, ainda não se conhecendo
qualquer resultado, definir um plano de análise estatística dos resultados?</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Não. Se for impossível é porque a questão de investigação e toda a sua
envolvente não estão bem definidas - aliás, em estudos que careçam de um cálculo
do tamanho da amostra é essencial definir a técnica estatística a aplicar que
mais directamente consegue, a partir dos dados recolhidos, responder à questão
de investigação. No entanto, também é verdade que na fase da análise
estatística dos dados pode haver necessidade de efectuar alguma análise que não
foi prevista <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">a priori</i>. Mas tal deverá
apenas acontecer se surgir a necessidade de explicar ou descrever alguma
relação surpreendente ou interessante que surja nos resultados e que se
relacione directamente com os objectivos do trabalho.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">3- Não se deve aproveitar o ensejo do estudo para recolher tanta informação
quanto possível, de forma a responder a questões futuras que não tenham sido
tidas em conta?</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Não. Para a realização de um estudo, tudo o que seja a mais tem custos de
recursos humanos, recursos materiais e tempo. A chance desses dados espúrios
virem a ser analisados é diminuta, o que aliado ao facto de haver uma altíssima
probabilidade de não haver potência suficiente para responder a questões
provenientes dessa informação torna muito dispendioso e, acima de tudo,
completamente inconsequente, recolher dados não relacionados com a questão
principal.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Deverá considerar-se, porém, uma excepção: é lícito recolher dados de
carácter exploratório, úteis para definir estudos futuros. Estes não serão
considerados, porém, como dados do estudo em questão.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">4- No meu estudo eu consigo detectar duas questões principais, é possível?</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Assim sendo significa que tem dois estudos e não um. Para cada um desses
estudos deve definir a medida principal e os testes estatísticos apropriados;
com base nesta informação calcular o tamanho de cada uma das duas amostras
suficientes para responder de forma cabal a cada uma das questões em cada
estudo.</span></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;">Na próxima edição do <u>Perguntas Frequentes em Bioestatística</u>: “Com a
estatística também se erra?”</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> </span>
<br />
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;">
<br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> <span lang="PT">Poderá considerar-se como excepção
os estudos clínicos exploratórios, em que não é ainda claro o protocolo a
seguir e se admite que o mesmo poderá ir sendo alterado à medida que se obtêm
resultados preliminares. Poderá também ter-se um desenho de estudo adaptativo,
onde são considerados os diferentes cenários e limites, ver Lorch U, O’Kane M,
Taubel J. Three steps to writing adaptive study protocols in the early phase
clinical development of new medicines. BMC Medical Research Methodology. 2014.</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> De acordo com os critérios FINER,
sugeridos em Hulley S, Cummings S, Browner W, et al. </span>Designing clinical
research. 3rd ed. Philadelphia (PA): Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2007. </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn3" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[3]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> <span lang="PT">A replicação de estudos é
importante. Mas também esta oferece novidade, a menos que seja a replicação de
estudos já absolutamente consensuais e metodologicamente correctos.</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn4" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4707648111858684514#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"> Deverá, por exemplo, avaliar-se se a
estratégia de resposta à questão é replicável ou se permite obter resultados
robustos. Os resultados terão de ser credíveis e, por isso, reprodutíveis por
outros investigadores.</span></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-62675289133552263582016-03-21T22:43:00.004+00:002016-03-24T14:13:52.887+00:00Simulação em estatística<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Mais uma sexta-feira, mais uma sessão de estatística, de novo documentada com fotos. O quinto dos <a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica/Courses" target="_blank">cursos LBIM</a> foi sobre <a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica/Courses/documentos_extra/C5.pdf" target="_blank">Simulação em Estatística</a>. Dia 22 de Abril terá lugar o curso <a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica/Courses" target="_blank">Regressão logística e análise ROC</a>.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgi1j93Z4doUoycvKX5p_Px1DjzTV-_dYWWF6vcNX8Luk9c6lpwcmHNcIWl0GG3ySNFtwQ-VakTfxXz0WCV8qC2NA6OihxOv0pZGpcaazu1BIIN02ghJL3hXs4cJP27SAWVQMI9QhMqMht4/s1600/20160318_165058.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgi1j93Z4doUoycvKX5p_Px1DjzTV-_dYWWF6vcNX8Luk9c6lpwcmHNcIWl0GG3ySNFtwQ-VakTfxXz0WCV8qC2NA6OihxOv0pZGpcaazu1BIIN02ghJL3hXs4cJP27SAWVQMI9QhMqMht4/s640/20160318_165058.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-13213347000903430702016-03-21T22:26:00.001+00:002016-03-21T22:26:23.501+00:00Estatística no dia mundial da Poesia<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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</div>
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<iframe width="320" height="266" class="YOUTUBE-iframe-video" data-thumbnail-src="https://i.ytimg.com/vi/r7LNAnax2og/0.jpg" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/r7LNAnax2og?feature=player_embedded" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe></div>
<br /></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-78066124745136246612016-03-08T13:32:00.003+00:002016-03-08T13:33:34.356+00:00Valor-p<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
O uso abusivo dos valor-p é uma discussão a <a href="http://www.nature.com/news/statisticians-issue-warning-over-misuse-of-p-values-1.19503" target="_blank">ganhar momento</a>, sendo uma das maiores preocupações do LBIM. Tal já foi discutido <a href="http://laboratoriobioestatistica.blogspot.pt/2015/05/p-value-o-grande-enganador-ou-como.html?q=valor" target="_blank">aqui</a>: um valor-p, por si só e sem contexto, não é informativo. Pior, pode ser engador. Inevitavelmente, iremos abordar este tema mais pormenorizadamente no futuro. Para já, fica uma discussão do que é - e não é - o valor p:</div>
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<iframe allowfullscreen="" class="YOUTUBE-iframe-video" data-thumbnail-src="https://i.ytimg.com/vi/ax0tDcFkPic/0.jpg" frameborder="0" height="266" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ax0tDcFkPic?feature=player_embedded" width="320"></iframe></div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-5467828049509365192016-02-29T12:21:00.003+00:002016-02-29T12:23:45.031+00:00Revisões sistemáticas e meta-análises<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Para o <a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica" target="_blank">LBIM</a>, 2016 é o ano de todos os cursos. Na última sexta-feira, dia 26 de Fevereiro, decorreu o curso "Revisões sistemáticas e meta-análises", no qual se tiraram as fotografias que podem ser vistas em baixo. Já nos próximos dias 4 e 11 de Março, terá lugar o curso "<a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica/Courses" target="_blank">Estatística com SPSS</a>". Segue-se, no dia 18 de Março, o curso "<a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica/Courses" target="_blank">Simulação em estatística</a>".<br />
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-84390064679951710712016-02-19T12:38:00.001+00:002016-02-19T12:38:22.921+00:00Curso Pensamento Estatístico Aplicado<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Após ter sido realizado em Janeiro o curso <a href="http://laboratoriobioestatistica.blogspot.pt/2016/01/curso-desenho-de-estudos-de.html" target="_blank">Desenho de estudos clínicos</a>, chega a vez do segundo curso dos cursos <a href="http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/labbioestatisticainformaticamedica/Courses" target="_blank">LBIM 2016</a>: "Pensamento Estatístico Aplicado". Partilhamos algumas fotos.<br />
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4707648111858684514.post-74611696521324916922016-02-06T18:26:00.000+00:002016-02-06T18:28:26.546+00:00Programas de análise estatística<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Neste blog <a href="http://laboratoriobioestatistica.blogspot.pt/2015/10/dominacao-e-declinio-do-spss.html" target="_blank">já se falou</a> de como o SPSS parece estar na liderança mas a perder a corrida ao programa mais frequentemente usado no mundo académico para fazer análise estatística. No mundo empresarial, nem chega a ser um <i>player</i>. Os competidores maiores serão programas como o SAS, o R ou o Python. O primeiro tem a aura de ser o único aprovado pela FDA para ensaios clínicos, <a href="http://blog.revolutionanalytics.com/2012/06/fda-r-ok.html" target="_blank">mas será mesmo assim</a>? Na verdade, nenhum software é aprovado pela FDA*, ler mais <a href="http://blog.revolutionanalytics.com/2009/01/analyzing-clinical-trial-data-with-r.html" target="_blank">aqui</a>. Tanto o R como o Python têm a vantagem de ser livres e ter comunidades muito activas a desenvolver e partilhar código. Para quem quer escolher aprender a usar uma destas ferramentas, a escolha é difícil. A infografia que se segue, tirada <a href="http://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2015/05/infographic-quick-guide-sas-python/?utm_content=buffer8ef36&utm_medium=social&utm_source=linkedin.com&utm_campaign=buffer" target="_blank">daqui</a>, ajuda:</div>
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<a href="http://i0.wp.com/www.analyticsvidhya.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/pyhon-vs-sas-vs-s_00000-copy.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://i0.wp.com/www.analyticsvidhya.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/pyhon-vs-sas-vs-s_00000-copy.jpg" height="640" width="100" /></a></div>
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* tanto quanto o autor destas linhas julga perceber do assunto. Comentários ou mais esclarecimentos serão bem vindos.</div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0